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Proceedings of the United States Congress
Topic Started: Dec 7 2009, 01:28 AM (564 Views)
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Proceedings of the
Congress of the United States of America


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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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January 1, 1836

The Twenty-fourth Congress of the United States has assembled in Washington, D.C., for the first of its two sessions. This session, the longer of the two, has already generated a number of sharp disputes among pro- and anti-Jacksonian legislators, chief among them what stance the Congress should adopt toward the growing federal surplus. Some Democratic senators have called for a reduction in the Tariff of 1833, whereas many Whigs, led by Kentuckian Henry Clay, have been pushing for a distribution of surplus revenue to the states for use in various improvement projects. President Jackson is on record as opposing the latter plan, citing concerns that it oversteps the bounds of federal power.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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May 26, 1836

The House of Representatives today passed the Pinckney Resolutions, a series of regulations concerning congressional treatment of the slavery question and the House's handling of antislavery petitions, by a vote of 117 to 68. Popularly called "The Gag Rule," the third of these measures has aroused fierce opposition from some northern Whigs, including Massachusetts representative and former president John Quincy Adams, who accused it of circumventing Americans' constitutional right "to petition the government for a redress of grievances."

A similar proposal in the U.S. Senate by John Calhoun ran into stiff opposition from Henry Clay and other Whigs, but an informal practice soon emerged among southern Democrats achieving the same effect: whereupon an antislavery petition is introduced in the chamber, a senator will immediately move that the "question of its reception be laid on the table," thus preventing it from being read and debated.

In other news, the Congress appears to be nearing a settlement in the dispute over how best to handle this year's large federal surplus. A preliminary plan sponsored by Henry Clay would lend the proceeds at zero interest to the twenty-four states according to their electoral college representation, for use in improvement projects and other internal construction. A second part of the bill would grant additional preemption rights to squatters in federal territories to encourage immigration and settlement of the West.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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June 7, 1836

Today the U.S. Congress passed the Distributive Preemption Act of 1836, a landmark federal bill designed to "appropriate the proceeds of the sales of the public lands, and to grant pre-emption rights" to squatters, in an effort to encourage further immigration into and settlement of the West.

The legislation will permit squatters on government land who are heads of households, widows, or single men over 21, who are citizens of the United States, or intend to become citizens, and who have been living on a particular plot of land for at least 14 months, to purchase up to 160 acres at a very low price (not less than $20 per acre) before the land is offered for sale to the general public. Furthermore, when any future states comprised of the Western territories are officially admitted into the Union, they will be paid 10% of the proceeds of the sale of such public land.

A special provision has been made for the Oregon territory, with various subsidies being allocated to promote the local sale of tools, implements and land for pioneers wishing to settle there. Detachments of the U.S. Cavalry will also be increasing patrols along major trails to prevent harassment by Indians.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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June 10, 1836

This year's budget outline has been approved by Congress and the projected federal surplus of nearly $250 million is set to be lent to each of the states in proportion to their representation in the House and Senate. The law states that the loans are to bear no interest, which has prompted a dispute among some Democratic politicians, who insist that they are merely disguised grants-in-aid. The Jackson Administration has largely brushed aside these concerns.

With most of the pressing national issues settled, the Congress plans to adjourn on July 4.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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January 16, 1837

The Senate today voted 24-19 to expunge from the records the official censure passed in 1834 against President Jackson, the only president in the history of the United States to be so censured by the Congress. The original resolution was passed in response to Jackson's withdrawal of federal funds from the Bank of the United States, a maneuver of questionable legality that aroused considerable dissent on both sides of the aisle.

Today's vote itself came on the heels of a contentious but short debate. Whigs argued that the Senate records should remain inviolable despite the body's right to change its collective mind on issues. John Calhoun concurred with an eloquent speech decrying the mutilation of the Constitution's provision that each house keep a journal of its proceedings.

The page in the 1834 Senate records was not actually torn out or mutilated, and the original censure remains legible. The secretary of the Senate simply drew lines around it and noted that it had been "Expunged by order of the Senate, this 16th day of January, 1837." For many senators, however, this was a moot point, for the debate had been more about principle than procedure.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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February 7, 1839

Henry Clay delivered an impassioned speech to the Senate today in which he condemned the extremes of abolitionism but also those politicians who would defend slavery as a moral good.

Speaking on behalf of those whose petitions are being ignored due to the "Gag Rule," Clay reasserted his lifelong conviction that slavery was evil and should never have been introduced into America. Simultaneously he recognized abolitionists' constitutional right to petition the government for a redress, but maintained that Congress should not enact their proposals, due to the economic and social damage they would cause:

"I am, Mr. President, no friend of slavery. The searcher of all hearts knows that every pulsation of mine beats high and strong in the case of civil liberty. Wherever it is safe and practicable, I desire to see every portion of the human family in the enjoyment of it. But I prefer the liberty of my own country to that of any other people; and the liberty of my own race to that of any other race. The liberty of the descendants of Africa in the United States is incompatible with the safety and liberty of the European descendants."

Echoing some extremist Southerners, Clay went on to claim that the "peculiar institution" is so deeply rooted in the South and is so critical to its economy, that if forced to choose between slavery and Union, Southerners would choose the former.

The speech is seen as Clay's attempt to craft a sectional consensus in preparation for the upcoming Whig convention and next year's presidential campaign, since it advises gradual emancipation instead of either the indefinite continuation of slavery or immediate abolition. Many Northern Whigs have reacted negatively, however, and support is shifting toward William Henry Harrison or Winfield Scott for the nomination.

When told of this by a fellow senator and warned that the speech would make him the target of extremists on both sides, Clay is said to have retorted, "I had rather be right than be president."
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February 18, 1840

With the end of the Seminole War in Florida, the U.S. Congress has passed the Armed Occupation Act to stimulate the settlement of that territory.

The act grants 160 acres of unsettled land in south and east Florida to the head of any household who will: reside there for at least five consecutive years; clear, enclose and cultivate at least five acres of said land; and construct a house within the first year of occupation.

The provisions of this act apply only to land that is at least two miles from U.S. Army garrison posts, hence the need for settlers to bear arms for their own protection.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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April 1, 1840

There is growing pressure on the Van Buren administration to pass banking reform before the end of this year's legislative session, to offset the economic downturn and demonstrate to the American people that Democrats are serious about tackling the depression. A bill has been introduced in Congress to establish an independent treasury system that would replace the "pet banks" in use since President Jackson's withdrawal of federal funds from the BUS. Whigs are adamantly opposing it, saying that only a new national bank can avert future crises of the current magnitude.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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July 21, 1840

After much wrangling Congress has passed the Independent Treasury Act of 1840. Many soft money Democrats and virtually all Whigs opposed the measure for both ideological and political reasons, including fears that the withdrawal of federal funds from state banks would burden the economic crisis with further deflation. A consensus among House Democrats finally emerged last week and the act narrowly passed over Whig objections.

The Independent Treasury System will consist of local sub-treasuries in major American cities, each completely independent of the private and state banking systems (hence its name). All transactions involving the government will be made in specie.

General Harrison's campaign has said that in the event of a Whig electoral victory this November, repeal of this act would be one of his top priorities during his first year in office.
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October 25, 1840

A bill will be introduced in the next session of Congress allocating federal funds for the printing and distribution of U.S. travel brochures in selected European countries. It is hoped that this legislation, in conjunction with similar measures heretofore proposed in various state legislatures, will induce more immigrants to settle the United States' western frontier, thus stimulating the economy as well as federal revenue.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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January 21, 1841

The bipartisan immigration bill sponsored by Representatives John Stuart of Illinois and John Miller of Missouri failed to attract sufficient attention in Congress to pass during this year's early session, due to the legislature's preoccupation with weightier national issues. However action on the state level has continued undeterred, and several independent agencies in five northwestern states have already drawn up plans to distribute pamphlets extolling the virtues of life on the frontier in Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, the German states, Scandinavia, and Switzerland.

Funding has been drawn from state treasuries as well as various private sources, which have an interest in acquiring new cheap labor and further developing land.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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March 17, 1841

President Harrison has called a special session of Congress to deal with the unremitting depression and to examine various Whig proposals for stabilizing the economy. These measures include a new federal bankruptcy act, an increase in tariff duties to protect domestic industry, and the reestablishment of a national Bank of the United States.

His announcement came on the heels of a week-long dispute in Congress over the attempted firing of Senate printing contractors, who were appointed by the last Democratic legislature. Whigs introduced a bill replacing the existing printers with men of Whiggish political convictions; Democrats responded by obstructing an up-or-down vote on the bill for ten days, an action unprecedented in U.S. Senate history.

This along with other events has renewed the national debate over spoils and patronage, and Whigs are considering introducing a comprehensive civil service reform bill during the next session. President Harrison himself has not been exempt from the controversy: when a group of office seekers besieged the White House yesterday and demanded the firing of all appointed Democrats, he is said to have remarked, "So help me God, I will resign my office before I can be guilty of such an iniquity."
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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June 30, 1841

The special session of Congress opened on May 31 amid much talk in Washington of the Whigs' economic strategy. "We come here to relieve the country," said one representative from New York. "The eyes of the nation are bent on us with an intensity which has never before been experienced."

Democrats have charged the Whigs with trying to rush legislation through Congress before the economy can recover, leaving precious little time for true debate and compromise. Whig leaders countered with an indictment of Former President Van Buren's "do-nothing" policies and declared that action, not lecturing, is needed soon to get the economy moving.

Action has certainly been the watchword this month: Congress passed legislation repealing the Independent Treasury bill of 1840 and is currently debating another bill that would establish a third national bank. Civil service reform, one of the top items on President Harrison's agenda for his first year, has attracted some initial support but is running into opposition from Jacksonian Democrats. Discussions on the proposed tariff hikes are evoking strong opinions from both sides, and there are rumors the President may delay a vote on that bill until the next session, when a broader consensus may be reached.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
- Zachary Taylor
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August 6, 1841

Today the U.S. Congress passed the National Banking Act of 1841, a bill reestablishing the BUS and a major victory for the Whig economic program. The final vote fell mostly along party lines, but a number of soft-money Democrats joined the Whigs to support centralized banking, including some Southerners who dislike their regional dependence on Northern financiers. President Harrison will sign the bill into law next week; the BUS will go into operation late next year after the advisory board is in place and funds are allocated from the treasury.

In a concession to strict constructionists, the Third National Bank will based in the District of Columbia and the states will enjoy certain rights to control the establishment of its branches. Its initial charter will last 20 years.

Also passed last month was the Bankruptcy Act of 1841, a depression-relief measure aimed at establishing a uniform national bankruptcy code. Democrats voiced their moral disapproval of the bill, citing its danger of encouraging individuals to live beyond their means. Whigs hope it will stimulate the economy by allowing merchants ruined in the Panic of 1839 to reenter commercial life.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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September 13, 1841

The special session of Congress closed today following a number of Whig legislative victories, notably the two major banking acts. It was one of the most productive meetings of Congress in the past decade.

Civil service reform has been put on hold until the regular session can begin in December, due to the inability of the House and Senate to agree on a unified bill. Higher tariffs also have continued to be a hot topic among Democrats but an across-the-board duty increase is likely to pass next year.

With their initial economic plans falling into place, Whigs are considering a number of subsidies to internal improvements, which they say would stimulate interstate commerce and promote settlement of the West. These include an extension of the National Road from Vandalia, Illinois to Jefferson City, Missouri, with the portion west of Springfield, Ohio being subsequently macadamized. Another proposal for a Morse telegraph line connecting Washington with New Orleans and St. Louis has attracted the attention of both the U.S. Army and the Post Office.

Democrats have once again urged extreme caution, citing concerns over growing federal power and the ever-shrinking surplus, but the promise of faster communication and travel is appealing to many citizens in the South and West.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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December 23, 1841

After nearly six months of debate in Congress, a comprehensive Civil Service Reform Act has been passed that will again make merit, not merely party allegiance, the guiding principle behind many federal appointments. The measure squeaked through the Senate on a party line vote of 27-24, ironic for legislation that Whig supporters say is intended to undo the corrosive effects of partisanship.

The act provides for the establishment of a non-partisan Civil Service Commission, which will review applications for various federal positions and reward those with the most experience and capability. To make it more amenable to longtime party leaders, the total number of jobs subject to review under the act will remain small at first, with the option to increase gradually over subsequent years. The real substance of the act, however, consists of rules governing the dismissal of employees, something that has proved controversial ever since Andrew Jackson's "spoils system" gained popularity more than a decade ago.

Former President and current Massachusetts Representative John Quincy Adams, who led support for the bill in the House, called its passage "a triumph of republican virtue"; many in Washington have also speculated that it represents something of a personal vindication for him, in light of the charges of corruption that followed his 1824 election.

President Harrison will sign the bill into law on Monday.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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January 31, 1842

The House and Senate have passed resolutions affirming John Tyler's status as the tenth President of the United States. Although not required by law, since presidential succession is governed by the U.S. Constitution and the existing 1792 Succession Act, the step is seen as a gesture of goodwill toward the new chief executive. Most senators and representatives supported the measure, though there is talk that Henry Clay privately resisted it due to his personal dislike for Tyler.

One of the new President's first acts in office will be to review the tariff bill that recently passed the House and is expected to pass the Senate next Wednesday. The brainchild of Whig leaders, it will raise average tariff duties in the United States to approximately 40% and deliver considerable protection to the iron and textile industries, which suffered in the Panic of 1839.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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February 14, 1842

Following President Tyler's veto of the tariff increase, the Senate has set to work editing a new bill that should be more constitutionally and politically acceptable. It is less stringent on the imposition of protective duties and more generally aimed at procuring revenue. It also lacks a disbursement package for promoting internal improvements within the states, something Henry Clay had insisted on in the former bill and which Tyler found too intrusive.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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March 30, 1842

Representative John Quincy Adams presented an unusual petition to Congress last week from forty-two of his constituents in Haverhill, Massachusetts: a request for the dissolution of the Union, purportedly to absolve them from all association with and complicity in slavery. Adams himself stated his strong disagreement with the request but felt it his duty to lay it before the House.

The petition immediately created a sensation in the press. Several congressmen, including Henry Wise of Virginia and Thomas Marshall of Kentucky, demanded that Adams be formally censured for such an outrageous and insulting act. But the seventy-four year old former president turned the tables on his political enemies, speaking eloquently for a week in his own defense and publicly disgracing Marshall. Eventually, the Southerners decided to table the censure motion rather than let the affair continue indefinitely. Adams then triumphantly laid another 200 petitions before his stunned colleagues.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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July 11, 1842

Congress has appropriated funds for a diplomatic mission to China to secure a treaty of commerce with the Qing Empire. The legislation was pushed through with the aid of the Whig majority and was spearheaded by representatives from the Northeast, the center of the China and Pacific trade. President Tyler cordially approved the expedition and appointed Caleb Cushing to lead it.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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September 1, 1842

Due to mounting interest in the Oregon Country and various foreign immigration schemes, Congress has allocated additional funds to the War Department for securing the main overland trails leading there. Commissioners have been dispatched to neighboring Indian tribes to negotiate a treaty guaranteeing safe passage for pioneers.

The Senate Committee on Foreign Relations has recommended the appointment of a special minister to Panama to discuss the establishment of new steamship lines between the United States and that republic, with the objective of gaining easier access to the Pacific coast.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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June 8, 1844

The introduction of the Texas treaty of annexation two months ago sparked a bitter debate in Congress, as the Senate wrangled over whether to admit that republic as the newest state of the Union.

Along with the treaty, Secretary of State John Calhoun dispatched a statement to the Senate -- a copy of a letter he'd previously sent to the British ambassador outlining America's reasons for annexing Texas, chief among them to protect slavery from British interference. Antislavery Senator Benjamin Tappan of Ohio then leaked the treaty's provisions, which were supposed to be confidential, to several Northern newspapers. The explicitly pro-slavery agenda proved too hot for most Washington politicians to handle in an election year, and the treaty failed to muster the two-thirds majority required in its final vote today.

The failure of the Texas annexation bill will undoubtedly have dire repercussions for President Tyler's reelection bid, which is based on the slogan "Tyler and Texas!" and has little else for a platform. There is some speculation that Calhoun forced the pro-slavery line as a way of derailing the candidacies of both Tyler and Martin Van Buren, in order to ensure a more pro-South Democrat was nominated at the May convention.
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January 25, 1845

Following the election of James Polk on an expansionist platform, several new resolutions were introduced in Congress for the admittance of Texas into the Union. Earlier this month the House began fiercely debating a number of new bills that would annex that republic by joint resolution rather than treaty.

A proposal by Representative Milton Brown of Tennessee attracted the most attention. Under the Brown bill, Texas would be allowed to keep its public lands to help pay off large debts accumulated throughout the past ten years. The debt question proved incredibly divisive during last year's treaty talks as many Congressmen did not want to saddle the Federal government with even more financial obligations. Moreover, in an effort to stave off future sectional disputes, the bill stipulates that Texas would be admitted as a state, not a territory, and would have the right to divide itself into four additional states if desired, with any above the Missouri Compromise boundary being free from slavery and those below it with or without slavery, as the inhabitants direct. This provision shocked a number of strong antislavery politicians, but the bill easily passed the Democratic House and will go to the Senate next month.

In an unrelated piece of legislation this month, Congress passed a uniform date for national elections, beginning with the next Federal election. Until now each state set its own local polling dates, often widely scattered throughout the summer and fall. Henceforth national elections will be held on the first Tuesday in November following November 1.

Finally, Congress has repealed the "Gag Rule," a parliamentary guideline adopted in 1836 that limited debate over slavery. Critics had long charged its stifling of discussion was anti-democratic and un-American, and support gradually began fading as abolitionist representatives, including John Quincy Adams, consistently attempted to circumvent it.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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February 28, 1845

The Texas annexation resolution passed the Senate today by a vote of 27-25. The path is now clear for ratification by Austin and the union of Texas and the American Republic.

Passage of the resolution has been widely hailed throughout the country despite the dire prognostications of some Northern Congressmen. John Quincy Adams decried the Tyler administration's legal machinations after the failure of last year's treaty, arguing the joint resolution reduced the Constitution to "a menstruous rag."

President Tyler has announced he will sign the resolution tomorrow and forward it to Texas for immediate approval.
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"For more than half a century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it have long since descended to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their memory."
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March 3, 1845

On this last full day of President Tyler's term, Congress passed several important pieces of legislation. One of them was a steamer appropriation earlier vetoed by Tyler, making it the first law passed over a President's veto in U.S. history.

The 1840 immigration stimulus bill was also passed after a five-year hiatus. Its support gradually grew when the Panic of 1839 subsided and there was increased demand for labor. Positive results from state initiatives also contributed to the erosion of resistance in Washington, as more and more politicians saw the value of taking similar steps.

There was initially some debate over how funding should be distributed, so in an effort to ensure fairness, Congress allocated it equally to each state. The money will be used for the printing of pamphlets, subsidy of passenger lines, establishment of overseas offices, and other measures designed to promote settlement as each state sees fit.

Ratification of several new commercial treaties, including the agreement with the Austrian Empire, took place in the Senate as did the approval of a distribution bill to fund telegraph development for military communication. Last but not least, the admission of Florida as the 27th state was approved during the final days of the session.
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December 29, 1845

Congress has passed a joint resolution officially accepting Texas's proposed state constitution and its ordinance of annexation. President Polk quickly signed it into law and dispatched word to Austin to begin preparations for the transfer of civil authority. Texas is now the 28th state of the Union.
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March 8, 1846

Treasury secretary Robert J. Walker has presented the results of his yearlong financial study to Congress, urging a reorganization of the tariff. Walker was tasked with investigating customs regulations shortly after President Polk's inauguration. Like the President, he is a notable free-trader.

Under Walker's plan, individuals duties on specific goods would be replaced with ad valorem rates on general schedules, under which all products would be classified. Tariffs would remain low in keeping with the revenue-only logic, which Walker sees as practicable given the recent Federal surpluses.

This report provoked consternation from nearly all Whigs in addition to some Northern Democrats, who supported Polk in 1844 after he stated he had no objection to "incidental protection" of native industry. Given the very real possibility of war with Mexico and the attendant military expenses, Walker's recommendations may not be implemented this year.
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April 23, 1846

After five months of debate, Congress has enacted the notice of termination of the joint occupancy in Oregon with Britain. The decision was made following a very contentious session between those favoring compromise and continued negotiation, and those demanding all of Oregon up to the border of Alaska.

At the last minute an important amendment was secured by moderates encouraging "amicable settlement" of the question and inviting the British to initiate a new round of talks.
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May 13, 1846

News of the Mexican attack on Texas reached Washington the first week in May. Within days the atmosphere grew tense as citizens eagerly awaited the official response of Congress and the President.

On Monday, May 11, James K. Polk delivered an address before a joint session of Congress outlining recent American relations with Mexico. He cited its repeated refusals to entertain American peace offers, its outrages committed upon American citizens living in Texas and Mexico since 1835, its repeated violations of the treaties signed with the United States following Mexico's independence, its harassment of American merchants and seizure of their property, its government's blunt refusal to meet with Representative Slidell earlier this year, its belligerent rhetoric and active preparations for war against America since 1844, and finally Mexico's invasion of United States territory and its murder of American citizens.

"Our forbearance has gone to such an extreme as to be mistaken in its character," the President said. "Had we acted with vigor in repelling the insults and redressing the injuries inflicted by Mexico at the commencement, we should doubtless have escaped all the difficulties in which we are now involved...

"The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war. As war exists, and, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself, we are called upon by every consideration of duty and patriotism to vindicate with decision the honor, the rights, and the interests of our country."

The President recommended "most energetic and prompt measures and the immediate appearance in arms or a large and overpowering force" to bring the conflict with Mexico to a swift termination.

Congressional debate on the recommendation was lively and often partisan. Many Whigs, led by John Quincy Adams, wanted to pass a resolution authorizing Polk to repel the invasion but not issue a full declaration of war, as the former would preclude an extended offensive campaign into Mexico itself. They found an unlikely ally in John C. Calhoun, the aged Democratic senator and former secretary of state who had been so influential in annexing Texas under President Tyler. Calhoun spoke uncharacteristically against the national expansion that a war would likely bring on grounds of race and sectional equilibrium.

Neither the Whigs nor the Calhounites represented anything close to a majority, however, and the declaration of war easily passed Congress with a vote of 174-14 in the House and 40-2 in the Senate.
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June 16, 1846

In early June, President Polk submitted to the Senate an outline of a treaty settling the Oregon boundary. This came only days after Great Britain offered the State Department a new proposal of compromise along the 49th parallel, similar to several older propositions dating to the Jackson and Harrison administrations. Because the President was not prepared unilaterally to give up claims on 54-40, in light of his party's platform, he sent the treaty to the Senate for "advice and consent."

After reviewing it in detail, the Senate recommended the proposed division be adopted, and Secretary of State James Buchanan duly signed the compact on June 15. The settlement of the Oregon dispute after nearly thirty years of controversy has eliminated a major point of contention between England and America, paving the way for more amicable diplomatic relations. It has also given the United States its first unfettered, contiguous access to the west coast, a major boon to future settlement.

Despite its success the compromise has angered many Northern congressmen, who felt they had been sold out by Polk after supporting his claims to all of Texas.
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July 15, 1846

Congress has passed the Tariff Act of 1846, popularly known as the Walker Tariff, implementing the recommendations previously delivered by Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker. The legislation will go into effect in early 1847 and represents one of the most sweeping overhauls of customs regulation since 1833.

Although hardly unexpected, the continuation of low tariff rates has greatly disappointed the Whig Party as well as Northern Democrats, who already felt betrayed by the division of Oregon along the 49th parallel.

President Polk did, however, make one small gesture of conciliation toward his alienated party members by signing a bill allocating federal money for the dredging of harbors and rivers. It remains to be seen whether this will be enough to preserve Democratic unity as the November midterm elections approach.
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August 10, 1846

As the end of the session drew near, President Polk requested $30 million from Congress to facilitate "a cession of territory" from Mexico, for which he said the United States "ought to pay them a fair equivalent." Although everyone on Capitol Hill had privately known this to be a war aim, this was the first time it had been publicly expressed.

Coming so soon after the compromise on Oregon, the mood of many Northerners was still ugly, and the question of territorial acquisitions struck a nerve among Van Buren Democrats. Polk's timing -- introducing his request two days before the end of the session -- also limited the potential for debate and, along with the tariff issue, greatly exacerbated the strain on their party loyalty.

During the ensuing floor debate on August 8, Representative Wilmot of Pennsylvania unexpectedly introduced a bill that would ban slavery from any territories acquired from Mexico. Disgruntled over Polk's apparent disregard for Northern Democrats' wishes, he spoke for only ten minutes but raised an uproar in the House. The proceedings soon attracted the attention of no fewer than three cabinet members.

Within two hours the bill came to a vote, passing narrowly along purely sectional lines, 85-80. The Senate took up the proposal the following Monday, but it was filibustered to death by Senator Davis, a Whig from Massachusetts dedicated to the principle of absolutely no territorial concessions from Mexico.

Wilmot's Proviso has attracted great attention throughout the country, combining the disparate controversies over war, national expansion, slavery, party loyalty, and the powers of Congress into a single issue. "As if by magic," one Boston newspaper observed, "it brought to a head the great question which is about to divide the American people."
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January 3, 1848

Today the House passed a resolution thanking General Zachary Taylor for his wartime services. His martial skills displayed along the Rio Grande demonstrated to the country and to the world the fighting ability of the American citizen-soldier, and to him and his men are owed the eternal thanks of a grateful nation.

The resolution also labeled the war as being "unnecessarily and unconstitutionally" begun by President Polk, and for this reason the Democratic-dominated Senate refused to join in passing it.

Congress itself has been wracked with partisan debate as the Mexican war apparently is drawing to a close. Over a week ago, on December 22, Representative Abraham Lincoln of Illinois introduced a series of resolutions challenging Polk to locate the exact spot on a map where American blood had originally been shed, as Polk claimed in his May 1846 war address. The House largely paid little heed to Lincoln's "Spot Resolutions," which were not adopted, though his oratory captured the attention and friendship of elder statesman John Quincy Adams.
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March 10, 1848

The arrival of Trist's dispatches from Mexico late last month stirred intense partisan feelings in the halls of Congress. Several Whigs objected to the treaty because of their firm commitment to no territorial acquisitions; on the opposite end of the spectrum, many Democrats found it unacceptable because it did not cede enough land to the United States. These included a group of Southerners who had called for the annexation of "all Mexico." A handful of politicians from both sides of the aisle further questioned the treaty's legality -- Trist had officially been recalled by Polk in the autumn of 1847, but defied his orders because he believed a solution lay near.

All sides agreed on one thing: peace needed to be restored quickly.

After a brief delay following the death of John Quincy Adams, the session resumed in early March and 39 senators voted in favor of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, slightly more than the 2/3rds requirement. Seven of the thirteen voting no were Whigs, including Daniel Webster, whose son had died of typhoid fever in Mexico. However, twice that number of Whigs (14) voted in favor of the treaty, indicating their preference for peace trumped their commitment to no territory.
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April 14, 1848

Congress has passed an act establishing a formal territorial government for Oregon after reports arrived of a deadly Indian uprising last November. Among the victims were Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife, Narcissa, the noted missionaries who had been living there since 1836. Over 50 others were also taken hostage by the savages before being released later.

It was quickly realized that the sparsely populated region needed a more efficient local authority, and last February representatives of the so-called "Provisional Government of Oregon" began pressing for official recognition from Washington. This was not granted, but the Oregon Territory organic act did set up a virtually identical political system.

One of the more interesting petitions from the provisional government involved expanding the local homestead laws, which currently grant free land to any citizens who settle there. Congress has not yet acted on this request, but it has appealed to certain Midwest politicians seeking to bring in more pioneers.
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August 14, 1848

Ever since the war with Mexico began, the slavery question has overshadowed Congress's every move. Bitter partisan wrangling frequently delayed the passage of vital war appropriations in 1847, and much of the western half of U.S. continental territory remains unorganized due to the inability of Northerners and Southerners to agree on the status of slavery. "It meets you in every step you take," one senator observed, "it threatens you which way soever you go."

During the debates, four main doctrines were advanced by various political factions: Congress has every right to exclude slavery from federal territories and should employ this power rigorously (the free soil position); Congress has the power to exclude slavery, but should not act without deference to the interests of both sections in order to maintain political harmony (the Missouri Compromise position); Congress should leave the matter entirely to local governments so that citizens can decide for themselves whether they want to ban or allow slavery (the popular sovereignty position); and neither Congress nor any territorial legislature has the power to regulate slavery prior to statehood, and any attempt to do so would be unconstitutional (the Calhounite position). Each of these doctrines has been competing for supremacy despite some philosophical overlap, and as Congress has been unable to agree on one guiding principle, each camp has been able to block its opponents' agenda.

The only progress so far this year has been the establishment of Oregon Territory, but even it was not without protracted controversy. In the end, the incorporation of Oregon was achieved only because its northerly climate would make the importation of slaves impractical, and because it lies above the historical 36°30' Missouri Compromise line, which satisfied a majority of all factions.

President Polk has decried Congress's "mischievous and wicked" banter, which he regards as both unnecessary and unpatriotic. Almost all of the territory ceded by Mexico is unsuitable for the type of slave agriculture practiced in the South, he explained, and as such the question is fundamentally academic. Fiery rhetoric and bitter partisanship over a virtual non-issue could "not fail to destroy the Democratic Party" and might "ultimately threaten the Union itself." In the summer Polk threw his support behind extension of the Missouri Compromise line across the continent to the Pacific, so as to satisfy both sections of the country without impinging on the other's natural rights. This has not been received well among Northerners now that Oregon is free soil, however, as it would make most of the Mexican Cession slave territory -- a victory for the South without providing anything in return for the North.

With the session coming to an end and the partisan deadlock continuing, Congress finally adjourned today without committing itself thoroughly to either compromise or popular sovereignty. New Mexico and California both remain unorganized despite the rapid influx of citizens from the Gold Rush.
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March 3, 1849

The second session of the Thirtieth Congress saw no moderation to the vitriolic slave disputes. Militancy among Northerners and Southerners alike frequently turned debates on the House floor into shouting matches while the Senate remained deadlocked over organizing California and New Mexico. As Northern representatives became more insistent on making the entire West free soil, Southern delegates grew bolder in threatening secession. William A. Richardson of Illinois characterized the mood in Washington as downright ugly: "There is a bad state of things here, and as little as it is thought about, I fear this Union is in danger.... It is appalling to hear gentlemen, Members of Congress sworn to uphold the Constitution, talk and talk earnestly for a dissolution of the Union."

Over the winter, John C. Calhoun attempted to organize a coalition of Southern Whigs and Democrats into a united Southern party, but this went nowhere after Whigs -- fresh from their November electoral victory -- derailed the initiative with partisan obstructionism. Several congressmen remain open to Calhoun's idea of a national Southern convention in the event Congress passes antislavery legislation, however, and the states of Virginia, Missouri, Florida and South Carolina have already passed resolutions supporting "firm, united and concerted action" against Northern abolitionism.

Although bogged down by partisan and sectional rancor, the session was not entirely without progress. Minnesota Territory was organized on the day before adjournment, and the Oregon Donation Land Claim Act, which will provide homesteads to any new settlers arriving in the Pacific Northwest before 1855, was passed after considerable debate. In one of the more interesting developments, Congress also passed the so-called Guano Islands Act, which permits American citizens to take possession of islands containing guano deposits, an important agricultural fertilizer. Variants of this bill had been proposed as far back as 1846 when mineral discoveries of the United States Exploring Expedition were made public, but languished in committee all through the Mexican War. On the last day of the session, Congress also authorized the creation of a Department of the Interior, which will manage all internal territorial affairs of the United States federal government. This is the first new cabinet position to be created since the early days of the Republic.
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